Members
01/Overview
The Otterhound is a rare and imposing breed of dog, recognized for its robust build and distinctively shaggy coat. Since the Middle Ages, the breed has been utilized primarily for hunting the river otter, a seriously formidable foe. Unusual for a hound, this breed is characterized by its affinity for water as well as for its keen sense of smell. This unique combination of qualities sets this courageous canine apart from other scenthound breeds.
Highlights
02/History
The origins of the Otterhound are shrouded in mystery, with the breed tracing its history back centuries in the British Isles. It is widely believed that the breed evolved from ancient hounds used by the Celts that were brought to England before the Roman invasion. Their primary purpose was hunting otters, which were a significant threat to fish populations in rivers and lakes. As otters became scarce, their primary function slowly transitioned to other activities, but their name remained a testament to their original task.
Throughout the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance, the breed's prowess in hunting otters made these dogs popular among English nobles. The breed's acute sense of smell, combined with its water-resistant coat and webbed feet, made these hounds particularly adept at the task. Their hunting prowess earned them a mention in several Olde English manuscripts, indicating their prominence in hunting circles at the time.
By the 20th century, however, otter hunting in the UK had declined significantly, When the hunting of otters was banned in 1978 due to conservation concerns, the breed's numbers plummeted as a result. With its primary functional purpose gone, the breed faced the threat of extinction. Thanks to the efforts of dedicated breed enthusiasts, the Otterhound has been preserved and is being promoted as a lovable companion.
The American Kennel Club (AKC) recognized the Otterhound in 1909. In Europe, the breed is also recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) and The Royal Kennel Club (UK).
Today, while still relatively rare, the Otterhound enjoys life as a loyal family member for a discerning few, often participating in dog sports and other canine activities.
03/Appearance
Adult male Otterhounds typically stand at 27 inches tall at the shoulder, while mature females are generally smaller, usually measuring around 24 inches tall.
In terms of weight, males generally weigh approximately 115 pounds, with females typically weighing about 80 pounds.
The Otterhound boasts a harmonious combination of power and agility. The breed's body is slightly longer than it is tall, giving this hound a somewhat rectangular silhouette. This proportion allows for a flexible and enduring stride, essential for the breed's historic role as a pack hound. The breed's substance is undeniably solid, with strong bone and a well-muscled physique. The robust construction, combined with balanced proportions, allows the Otterhound to capably work over challenging terrain and in wet environments with ease and stamina.
Texture: The breed's coat is notably rough and dense. It is a double coat that’s waterproof, which aided the Otterhound in its historic water-related tasks, offering protection in cold water and harsh terrain. A correct coat is an essential feature of the breed.
Standard Colors
Standard Markings
04/Consider
Owning an Otterhound is a unique experience filled with joy, challenges, and countless learning opportunities. As with any breed, understanding the specific needs and characteristics of the Otterhound is crucial to ensure a harmonious coexistence.
Interaction With Family
The level of affection a breed typically shows towards family members and familiar individuals.
Good With Other Dogs
The innate friendliness of a dog towards other dogs can depend on its breed.
Good With Young Children
The degree to which a breed will typically be patient with young children.
Amount Of Shedding
How much hair a breed typically leaves behind on clothes, furniture and floors.
Frequency Of Grooming
How often a breed needs brushing, bathing or a professional trim to stay in condition.
Amount Of Drooling
How prone a breed is to drool — worth knowing before you keep a towel by the door.
Openness To Strangers
How openly a breed tends to greet new people, visitors and strangers.
Protective Nature
How likely a breed is to alert you to — and stand between you and — anything unfamiliar.
Playfulness Level
How enthusiastic a breed stays about games and play well past puppyhood.
Trainability Level
How readily a breed takes direction and works with you rather than around you.
Barking Level
How much a breed uses its voice, and how readily.
Energy Level
How much get-up-and-go a breed brings to an average day.
Health
Otterhounds, like all breeds, come with their own set of health concerns to be aware of. Generally, they are hardy dogs, but due diligence on the part of the owner can ensure a long and healthy life for their canine companion. Lifespan: The average life expectancy of an Otterhound is around 10 to 13 years. Proper care, regular veterinary check-ups, and a balanced diet can contribute to reaching or even surpassing this age range.
The Otterhound possesses a personality that is as distinctive as the dog itself. Breed enthusiasts often describe this scenthound as friendly, independent, and even a bit clownish. And while the breed's amiable nature makes this hound a wonderful companion, its strong hunting instincts and independent streak can sometimes be a challenge.
For novice dog owners, the Otterhound can present a learning curve. The breed's inquisitive nature and determination can sometimes be misconstrued as stubbornness. It is essential, therefore, to approach training with patience, consistency, and positive reinforcement.
One of the most endearing qualities of the Otterhound is its deep sense of loyalty. While the breed may initially be wary of strangers, once an hound gets to know someone it often become fast friends. This loyalty is extended, of course, within the family unit. These large dogs are generally good with children, displaying a gentle and protective nature around younger members of the household.
When it comes to other dogs, the Otterhound usually gets along well, especially if it has been socialized from a young age. The breed's hunting background means these hounds can sometimes be assertive, but with proper introductions and supervision they can coexist harmoniously with other pets.
Leaving an Otterhound alone for extended periods can lead to boredom and potentially destructive behaviors. This breed thrives on interaction and activity, so it is essential to ensure dog has plenty of toys, puzzles, or other forms of entertainment when it is left alone for any length of time.
Exercise Expectations
Otterhounds possess a moderate to high energy level, making daily physical activity essential for their well-being. A simple walk around the neighborhood might not suffice for this breed; they often benefit from longer, more vigorous walks or hikes where they can explore and indulge their powerful sense of smell. While they can adapt to shorter exercise sessions, these should be complemented with other forms of play or activity to ensure they receive the stimulation they need. In addition to walks, Otterhounds enjoy swimming, and their webbed feet make them adept swimmers. If you have access to a safe body of water, it can be a wonderful way for them to expend energy while indulging in an activity they love. However, always supervise them around water to ensure their safety. Playfulness is another hallmark of the breed's personality. Engaging in play sessions with toys, fetch games, or interactive puzzles can provide both mental and physical stimulation. Their hunting background also makes them suitable for activities like tracking or scent games, which can be an enjoyable way to channel their natural instincts in a controlled environment. Despite their need for regular exercise, it's essential to be mindful of the breed's physical limits. Their large size means they can be prone to joint issues, so it's important to provide them with activities that don't put undue stress on their joints. For instance, while they might enjoy a game of fetch, repeated high-impact jumping might not be advisable.
Living with an Otterhound is a unique experience that comes with joys and challenges alike. These dogs, with their distinct appearance and affable nature, can become an integral part of any family. However, understanding their needs and behaviors is crucial for a harmonious coexistence.
When it comes to housing, Otterhounds are adaptable, but they aren't necessarily the best fit for apartment living unless they receive ample exercise and mental stimulation. A house with a yard offers them more freedom to explore, sniff, and play, catering to their inquisitive nature. Their history as scent hounds means they can sometimes follow their nose, so a securely fenced yard is vital to prevent them from wandering off on a scent trail.
Despite their hardy appearance, Otterhounds aren't strictly outdoor dogs. They thrive on human interaction and should be integrated into daily family life. While they can tolerate moderate weather variations, extreme cold or hot conditions can be uncomfortable for them. In particularly chilly weather, their coat offers some protection, but they might appreciate a cozy spot indoors. Conversely, during hotter months, ensure they have access to shade and fresh water if they spend extended periods outside.
Otterhounds, with their webbed feet and affinity for water, can be particularly messy, especially after a swim or walk in the rain. If you're meticulous about cleanliness, be prepared for some muddy footprints and a wet dog smell now and then. Their rugged coat can trap debris, so a quick brush or wipe down after outdoor adventures can help keep your home cleaner.
05/Puppies
The arrival of a litter of Otterhound puppies is a cause for celebration, one that is filled with moments of joy, mischief, and discovery. These puppies, with their floppy ears, large paws, and curious eyes, are undeniably adorable and can quickly endear themselves to any dog lover. However, raising an Otterhound puppy requires dedication, patience, and a fair amount of knowledge about this unique and energetic breed.
Caring for an Otterhound puppy is a task that involves attention to nutrition, socialization, training, and health. From the moment a puppy arrives in its new home, establishing a routine is crucial. This will not only help in housebreaking and feeding routines, it also gives the puppy a sense of security in its new environment.
Diet is paramount during the puppy stage, as it is a time of rapid growth and development. It is vital to provide the pup with high-quality puppy food that meets the nutritional needs specific to larger dog breeds. Overfeeding, or providing the wrong nutrients, can lead to skeletal issues or obesity later in life. It is best to consult with the hound's breeder and a veterinarian regarding the best feeding regimen and portion sizes for each puppy.
Early socialization is key to raising a well-adjusted Otterhound. Expose the puppy to various environments, people, and other animals will help to build confidence and reduce potential any fear or aggression in unfamiliar situations. Puppy training classes can also be beneficial, offering a structured environment for learning and interaction.
Consistent training from a young age will support the Otterhound puppy's maturity towards becoming a well-behaved adult. Given the breed's hunting background, instilling a strong recall command is essential. Positive reinforcement techniques work best, as this hound is known to be sensitive and might not respond well to harsh training methods.
Regular veterinary check-ups are crucial in the early stages of a puppy's life. These visits will ensure the pup is up-to-date in its vaccinations, deworming, and other preventive care. The vet can also offer advice on puppy-specific concerns like teething or behavioral issues.
Lastly, play, exercise, and rest are vital components of an Otterhound puppy's typical day. Offering a variety of toys can offer entertainment and stimulate the pup's minds, while regular naps will allow time for its growing body to recover from all the fun.
06/Activities
Owing to its historical role as a hunter and its boundless energy, the Otterhound remains a versatile breed that excels in a variety of physical activities. Engaging a hound in these activities not only keeps it physically fit, it also provides plenty of mental stimulation. Some of the dog sports that welcome the Otterhound include:
Obedience: Obedience Trials test the dog's ability to follow specific commands and showcase good behavior.
Rally: A combination of Obedience and Agility, where dogs navigate a course with specific exercises indicated by numbered signs.
Tracking and Scent Work: Leverages the breed's exceptional tracking abilities, challenging them to follow a scent over various terrains.
Agility: Time-bound events where Otterhounds navigate through obstacle courses, testing their speed and agility.
Water Rescue and Retrieval: Taps into the breed's love for water, testing their swimming and retrieval skills.
Lure Coursing: While traditionally for sighthounds, Otterhounds can enjoy the chase of a mechanically operated lure, tapping into their hunting instincts.
Barn Hunt: Otterhounds use their keen nose and hunting skills to find a rat (safely enclosed in a tube) hidden within a straw or hay bale maze.
Conformation Shows: An opportunity for Otterhounds to compete based on adherence to breed standards.
Beyond structured dog sports, Otterhounds greatly enjoy activities like long walks, hikes, and interactive play sessions. Regular participation in these events and activities can foster a stronger bond between the Otterhound and its owner.
Gallery
07/Standards
The Otterhound is recognized by the world's leading registries and kennel organizations, which categorize the breed into a specific Group based on its unique characteristics. This breed is recognized worldwide under the following Group designations:
The ideal Otterhound is described by a Breed Standard that is approved by each of the world’s leading registries and kennel organizations. The Breed Standards for this breed may be found in the following links:
08/Clubs
09/Rescue
10/Facts
Unique Scent Abilities
The Otterhound's keen sense of smell is so refined that it is said these dogs can track the faint scent of an otter over running water, a testament to its original hunting purpose.
A Rare Breed
Otterhounds are one of the most uncommon of breeds, with only a few hundred new puppies registered worldwide each year. This makes every Otterhound quite special!
Webbed Feet
One of the unique physical characteristics of the Otterhound is the breed's webbed feet. This adaptation not only made the dogs efficient swimmers, it also aided in tracking otters through water and marshy terrain.
Lifespan
Although large breeds often have shorter lifespans, Otterhounds can live up to 10-13 years with proper care and regular check-ups.
Voice
Otterhounds possess a distinctive bay, a deep and resonant sound that can carry for long distances. This was especially useful during a hunt.
Historical Popularity
At the height of otter hunting's popularity in England, there were close to 24 Otterhound packs. However, with the decline in the practice, the breed's numbers have been significantly reduced.
Royal Connection
The breed has had some royal admirers in the past. King John of England, in the 12th century, was known to keep packs of Otterhounds.
End of Hunting Era
Otter hunting was banned in the UK in 1978, leading to a decline in popularity. However, the ban paved the way for the breed's role as a companion animal.
Good-natured Giants
Despite its history as a hunter, the Otterhound is known for its friendly and affable nature, making the breed a wonderful option as a family pet.
11/FAQ
Otterhounds do shed, but their shedding is moderate in comparison to some other breeds. The breed's double coat requires consistent grooming to keep it in the best condition and to minimize loose hair around the house.
Official Standard of the Otterhound
General Appearance: The Otterhound is a large, rough-coated hound with an imposing head showing great strength and dignity, and the strong body and long striding action fit for a long day's work. It has an extremely sensitive nose, and is inquisitive and perseverant in investigating scents. The Otterhound hunts its quarry on land and water and requires a combination of characteristics unique among hounds-most notably a rough, double coat; and substantial webbed feet. Otterhounds should not be penalized for being shown in working condition (lean, well muscled, with a naturally stripped coat). Any departure from the following points should be considered a fault; its seriousness should be regarded in exact proportion to its degree.
Size, Proportion, Substance: Males are approximately 27 inches at the withers, and weigh approximately 115 pounds. Bitches are approximately 24 inches at the withers, and weigh approximately 80 pounds. This is not an absolute, but rather a guideline. The Otterhound is slightly rectangular in body; the length from point of shoulder to buttocks is slightly greater than the height at the withers. The Otterhound has good substance with strongly boned legs and broad muscles, without being coarse. Balance, soundness and type are of greater importance than size.
Head: The head is large, fairly narrow, and well covered with hair. The head should measure 11 to 12 inches from tip of nose to occiput in a hound 26 inches at the withers, with the muzzle and skull approximately equal in length. This proportion should be maintained in larger and smaller hounds. The expression is open and amiable. The eyes are deeply set. The haw shows only slightly. The eyes are dark, but eye color and eye rim pigment will complement the color of the hound. Dogs with black pigmented noses and eye rims should have darker eyes, while those with liver or slate pigment may have hazel eyes. The ears, an essential feature of this breed, are long, pendulous, and folded (the leading edge folds or rolls to give a draped appearance). They are set low, at or below eye level, and hang close to the head, with the leather reaching at least to the tip of the nose. They are well covered with hair. The skull (cranium) is long, fairly narrow under the hair, and only slightly domed. The stop is not pronounced. The muzzle is square, with no hint of snipiness; the jaws are powerful with deep flews. From the side, the planes of the muzzle and skull should be parallel. The nose is large, dark, and completely pigmented, with wide nostrils. The jaws are powerful and capable of a crushing grip. A scissors bite is preferred.
Neck, Topline, Body: The neck is powerful and blends smoothly into well laid back, clean shoulders, and should be of sufficient length to allow the dog to follow a trail. It has an abundance of hair; a slight dewlap is permissible. The topline is level from the withers to the base of tail. The chest is deep reaching at least to the elbows on a mature hound. Forechest is evident, there is sufficient width to impart strength and endurance. There should be no indication of narrowness or weakness. The well sprung, oval rib cage extends well towards the rear of the body. The loin is short, broad and strong. The tail is set high, and is long reaching at least to the hock. The tail is thicker at the base, tapers to a point, and is feathered (covered and fringed with hair). It is carried saber fashion (not forward over the back) when the dog is moving or alert, but may droop when the dog is at rest.
Forequarters: Shoulders are clean, powerful, and well sloped with moderate angulation at shoulders and elbows. Legs are strongly boned and straight, with strong, slightly sprung pasterns. Dewclaws on the forelegs may be removed. Feet - Both front and rear feet are large, broad, compact when standing, but capable of spreading. They have thick, deep pads, with arched toes; they are web-footed (membranes connecting the toes allow the foot to spread).
Hindquarters: Thighs and second thighs are large, broad, and well muscled. Legs have moderately bent stifles with well-defined hocks. Hocks are well let down, turning neither in nor out. Legs on a standing hound are parallel when viewed from the rear. Angulation front and rear must be balanced and adequate to give forward reach and rear drive. Dewclaws, if any, on the hind legs are generally removed. Feet are as previously described.
Coat: The coat is an essential feature of the Otterhound. Coat texture and quality are more important than the length. The outer coat is dense, rough, coarse and crisp, of broken appearance. Softer hair on the head and lower legs is natural. The outer coat is two to four inches long on the back and shorter on the extremities. A water-resistant undercoat of short wooly, slightly oily hair is essential, but in the summer months may be hard to find except on the thighs and shoulders. The ears are well covered with hair, and the tail is feathered (covered and fringed with hair). A naturally stripped coat lacking length and fringes is correct for an Otterhound that is being worked. A proper hunting coat will show a hard outer coat and wooly undercoat. The Otterhound is shown in a natural coat, with no sculpturing or shaping of the coat. Faults - A soft outer coat is a very serious fault as is a wooly textured outer coat. Lack of undercoat is a serious fault. An outer coat much longer than six inches becomes heavy when wet and is a fault. Any evidence of stripping or scissoring of coat to shape or stylize should be strongly penalized as a fault.
Color: Any color or combination of colors is acceptable. There should be no discrimination on the basis of color. The nose should be dark and fully pigmented, black, liver, or slate, depending on the color of the hound. Eye rim pigment should match the nose.
Gait: The Otterhound moves freely with forward reach and rear drive. The gait is smooth, effortless, and capable of being maintained for many miles. Characteristic of the Otterhound gait is a very loose, shambling walk, which springs immediately into a loose and very long striding, sound, active trot with natural extension of the head. The gallop is smooth and exceptionally long striding. Otterhounds single track at slow speeds. Otterhounds do not lift their feet high off the ground and may shuffle when they walk or move at a slow trot. The Otterhound should be shown on a loose lead.
Temperament: The Otterhound is amiable, boisterous and even-tempered.
Approved October 10, 1995
Effective November 30, 1995
Meet the Judges
Denise Flaim reflects on judging Hound breeds at Westminster 2026, noting overall quality, key winners, and breed type consistency.
American Kennel Club (AKC)
Debbie Melgreen reflects on judging Hound breeds at the 2025 AKC National Championship, sharing highlights, depth of quality, and gratitude.
All About Judging
Delve into the world of Otterhound feet and movement. Uncover their vital role in agility, endurance, and versatile terrain performance.
Breeding is a huge commitment. As Otterhound breeders, we are responsible for all puppies produced for their lifetime.
Otterhound’s many color combinations: Black and Tan, Wheaten, Tri-Color White or Off-White with patches of Liver, Tan and Black, Liver and Tan.
Meet the Breeders
Interview with Hound Group Breeders – Nancy & Karmen Lange – OHeavens Otterhounds – OHeavens is our kennel name. This came from my reaction
Puppies
Sometimes they are exhausting, but they do make good workers. So, what do I want when I pick an Otterhound puppy?
Purebred Otterhounds are an old breed of Scenthounds with wiry outer coats that are waterproof, and softer undercoats to keep them warm as
The tail of an Otterhound is a noteworthy aspect of its anatomy, complementing the breed’s robust build and powerful stride.
The tail is set high and extends in a gentle, saber-like curve, reaching to the hock when the dog is at rest. In motion, the Otterhound carries its tail elevated but not overly so; it should not curl over the back. This carriage showcases the breed's confidence and keen sense of purpose.
The tail is well-covered with hair, mirroring the rough texture of the breed's coat. This not only adds to its aesthetic appeal but also serves a functional purpose, aiding in the dog's balance while maneuvering through water and over uneven terrain.
The Otterhound's tail is not docked. The natural length and carriage of the tail are considered essential characteristics, accentuating the breed's silhouette and graceful way of going.
A Note About Color: The double coat of the Otterhound has an unkempt appearance. It consists of a harsh outer coat and a water-resistant undercoat. The outer coat can vary in length and may be softer in texture on the legs. Most puppies are born dark in color, with coats that typically lighten as they age. Any color or color combination is acceptable. The color of the nose and eye rims may be black, slate or liver, depending on the coat’s coloration. The nose should be dark and fully pigmented.
Coat Type
Rough, Double
The structure of the coat this breed carries.
Coat Length
Medium
How long the breed's coat grows when kept in condition.
Adaptability Level
How easily a breed copes with changes in home, routine, noise and weather.
Mental Stimulation Needs
How much a breed needs a job, a puzzle or training to stay content.
Feeding an Otterhound requires understanding not only the breed's specific needs but also the individual dog's age, activity level, and overall health. Being diligent about their diet can contribute significantly to their overall well-being and longevity.
When it comes to feeding an Otterhound puppy, it's essential to provide them with a nutrient-rich diet that supports their rapid growth and development. Puppies typically require a higher protein content in their food than adult dogs. It's often recommended to feed them specially formulated puppy food until they reach maturity.
As Otterhounds transition to adulthood, their dietary needs shift. An adult Otterhound, depending on its size and activity level, might consume between 2.5 to 3.5 cups of high-quality dry dog food daily. This quantity should be split into two meals to aid digestion and prevent potential issues like bloat.
It's also crucial to monitor the caloric intake of an Otterhound. While they are active dogs with a relatively high metabolism, overfeeding or providing them with a diet too rich in fats can lead to obesity, which in turn can exacerbate other health issues.
Water is a vital component of their diet. Always ensure that your dog has access to fresh, clean water, especially after exercise or during hotter months.
Tailoring the diet based on the dog's activity level is also key. For instance, an Otterhound that regularly participates in hunting or other high-intensity activities might require more calories and protein than one with a more sedentary lifestyle.
Regular check-ins with a veterinarian or a canine nutritionist can help adjust and refine the diet to ensure your Otterhound is getting all the essential nutrients. They can also provide guidance on supplements or specific dietary adjustments based on any health concerns or individual needs of your dog.
Training an Otterhound can be both a delightful and challenging experience. With their independent nature and a history of working without close human direction, they can sometimes exhibit a stubborn streak during training sessions. However, with the right approach, they can be trained to be obedient and well-mannered companions.
Otterhounds are intelligent dogs, which means they have the capacity to learn quickly, but their independent disposition means they might choose when they want to exhibit what they've learned. This characteristic underscores the importance of establishing yourself as a firm yet fair leader from the outset. Consistency in commands and expectations is crucial for the Otterhound to understand what's asked of them.
Positive reinforcement methods, such as treats, praise, and play, work best with this breed. They respond well to encouragement and are more likely to cooperate when they associate training with positive outcomes. Harsh corrections or punitive measures can be counterproductive, leading to resistance or even fear.
One aspect of training that should be emphasized with Otterhounds is recall. Given their hunting background, they can sometimes become fixated on a scent and might be inclined to chase after it, ignoring calls to return. Regular and consistent recall training, ideally in a controlled environment, is essential to ensure their safety.
The breed's vocal nature means they can sometimes be prone to excessive barking. Addressing this behavior early on, identifying the triggers, and providing alternative means of expression can help manage this trait.
Socialization, as with all breeds, is crucial for Otterhounds. Exposing them to various people, places, sounds, and other animals from a young age can help them become well-adjusted adults. It can also temper their natural wariness around strangers and help them be more accepting of new experiences.
Grooming Expectations
Otterhounds do shed, but the frequency can vary from one individual to another. Regular brushing, about two to three times a week, is recommended to prevent matting, especially in areas like behind the ears, under the legs, and around the neck. This routine not only helps in removing loose hairs and preventing tangles but also distributes natural oils throughout the coat, keeping it healthy and shiny. Given their propensity for outdoor activities, Otterhounds can often get dirty. While their rough coat is designed to repel dirt to some extent, they will need occasional baths. It's crucial, however, not to over-bathe an Otterhound, as doing so can strip the coat of its natural oils, making it dry and brittle. Use a dog-specific shampoo and ensure you rinse thoroughly to prevent any residue build-up. After baths, it's essential to dry them properly, paying special attention to the ears to prevent infections. Their pendulous ears require regular checks and cleaning. Their shape can create a moist environment that's conducive to infections. Gently cleaning the ears with a vet-recommended solution and ensuring they are dry can help in preventing potential issues. Other routine grooming practices include nail trimming, which should be done about once a month or when you hear their nails clicking on the floor. Dental hygiene is equally important; brushing their teeth several times a week can prevent tartar build-up and gum disease.
In terms of their compatibility with other pets, Otterhounds generally get along well with other dogs. Their hunting background, however, means they might view smaller animals, especially those that run, as prey. It's essential to introduce them slowly and monitor interactions with smaller pets.
Lastly, while Otterhounds are generally patient and gentle, it's always advisable to supervise interactions with young children. Teaching children how to approach and play with the dog ensures safety for both parties.
